- Uppsala, Uppsala Lan, Sweden
Terje Oestigaard
Uppsala University, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Department Member
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Dams, irrigation systems and hydropolitics are back on the geopolitical agenda. In recent years, we have seen an accelerating interest in large-scale water infrastructures, such as multipurpose dams and irrigation schemes, in the Nile... more
Dams, irrigation systems and hydropolitics are back on the geopolitical agenda. In recent years, we have seen an accelerating interest in large-scale water infrastructures, such as multipurpose dams and irrigation schemes, in the Nile Region and adjacent catchment areas. Governments in these regions are struggling to increase food security and to provide more energy in the face of industrialisation, climate change and rapid urban growth. The tension between countries over access to water will probably rise, as spells of drought increase in length and intensity.
This small anthology presents seven chapters on dam building processes and projects from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. It aims to deepen the understanding of the role of dams in development strategies in Africa and it problematizes why some dams are implemented while others are not, and the decision-making processes behind building either irrigation, hydropower or multi-purpose dams. Written in a short and consistent genre, it targets academics and policy makers interested in dam discourses and water infrastructure development.
This small anthology presents seven chapters on dam building processes and projects from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. It aims to deepen the understanding of the role of dams in development strategies in Africa and it problematizes why some dams are implemented while others are not, and the decision-making processes behind building either irrigation, hydropower or multi-purpose dams. Written in a short and consistent genre, it targets academics and policy makers interested in dam discourses and water infrastructure development.
Dams, irrigation systems and hydropolitics are back on the geopolitical agenda. In recent years, we have seen an accelerating interest in large-scale water infrastructures, such as multipurpose dams and irrigation schemes, in the Nile... more
Dams, irrigation systems and hydropolitics are back on the geopolitical agenda. In recent years, we have seen an accelerating interest in large-scale water infrastructures, such as multipurpose dams and irrigation schemes, in the Nile Region and adjacent catchment areas. Governments in these regions are struggling to increase food security and to provide more energy in the face of industrialisation, climate change and rapid urban growth. The tension between countries over access to water will probably rise, as spells of drought increase in length and intensity.
This small anthology presents seven chapters on dam building processes and projects from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. It aims to deepen the understanding of the role of dams in development strategies in Africa and it problematizes why some dams are implemented while others are not, and the decision-making processes behind building either irrigation, hydropower or multi-purpose dams. Written in a short and consistent genre, it targets academics and policy makers interested in dam discourses and water infrastructure development.
This small anthology presents seven chapters on dam building processes and projects from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. It aims to deepen the understanding of the role of dams in development strategies in Africa and it problematizes why some dams are implemented while others are not, and the decision-making processes behind building either irrigation, hydropower or multi-purpose dams. Written in a short and consistent genre, it targets academics and policy makers interested in dam discourses and water infrastructure development.
Research Interests:
The Tradition Everybody concerned with the history of ideas, knows that the history of ideas itself has a history. The history of ideas of water has, however, no such history, since it has yet to be written. Few scholarly works have been... more
The Tradition Everybody concerned with the history of ideas, knows that the history of ideas itself has a history. The history of ideas of water has, however, no such history, since it has yet to be written. Few scholarly works have been published about how water has been conceptualised and perceived at different times and in different societies, although all social systems have a hydraulic dimension and water has been interwoven with social interaction from profane activities to religious ceremonies all over the world from time immemorial. This historiographic state-of-affairs continues even though water's centrality in many belief systems has been acknowledged: The influential historian of religious ideas, M. Eliade, for example, writes: " Water symbolises the whole of potentiality: it is the fons et origo, the source of all possible existence … water symbolises the primal substance from which all forms came and to which they will return " (Eliade 1979: 188). And religious texts from all over the world underline the same point. The wording of the famous sanscrit text Mahäbhärata (XII.83.-4) summarises water's general position: " The creator first produced water for the maintenance of life among human beings. The water enriches life and its absence destroys all creatures and plant-life. " Images of and ideas about water have been and are central in creation stories and in narratives about " the end of the world " , in rituals and rites de passage, in scientific theories about creation and evolution and as a seemingly unending reservoir for metaphors in languages all over the world. So why then, has so very little attention been given to a reconstruction of its history?
Research Interests:
There can be no doubt that the dominant tradition in urban studies has given scant attention to the universal and structural importance of water in urbanization processes. Peter Hall, in his acclaimed Cities in Civilization (1998), does... more
There can be no doubt that the dominant tradition in urban studies has
given scant attention to the universal and structural importance of water in urbanization processes. Peter Hall, in his acclaimed Cities in Civilization (1998), does discuss the role of water in the development of Rome, Paris and London, but this volume on cities in civilization has a register with no general entries on either sewage, water supply system, rivers, canals, or aqueducts. In the same author’s book on the future of cities from 2002, the water issue is of marginal interest (Hall, 2002). A summary of the content of all the volumes of the journal Urban Studies between 2006 and 2012 shows that out of 14,363 pages, only 86 pages were devoted to the water issue.
given scant attention to the universal and structural importance of water in urbanization processes. Peter Hall, in his acclaimed Cities in Civilization (1998), does discuss the role of water in the development of Rome, Paris and London, but this volume on cities in civilization has a register with no general entries on either sewage, water supply system, rivers, canals, or aqueducts. In the same author’s book on the future of cities from 2002, the water issue is of marginal interest (Hall, 2002). A summary of the content of all the volumes of the journal Urban Studies between 2006 and 2012 shows that out of 14,363 pages, only 86 pages were devoted to the water issue.
Research Interests:
This volume will show that food production in general, and Africa’s history in particular, cannot be understood properly without locating them within particular water systems. From the early evolutionary history of mankind to the future... more
This volume will show that food production in general, and Africa’s history
in particular, cannot be understood properly without locating them within
particular water systems. From the early evolutionary history of mankind to
the future global challenges of feeding 9 billion people, the relationship
between water and food production is fundamental.1 The developments of
complex societies and civilizations were to a large extent based on the
wealth generated by surplus agricultural production in natural or artificially
irrigated land, and the revolutionary population growth during the last
century was due to more efficient food production, which again – and
this has been tended to be overlooked in many analyses of the Green
revolution – was premised on radically more and different uses of water.
Future pressure on water resources and water management in order to
increase food production will thus most likely increase. Very few now share
the widespread optimism of the early 1970s, when the world’s population
turned 4 billion and the then US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger,
proclaimed that ‘no child will go to bed hungry within ten years’.2
As development continues and the number of people increases,
meeting the world’s demand for food, and thus for water, will be one
of the most important challenges for the world community in the
twenty-first century.
in particular, cannot be understood properly without locating them within
particular water systems. From the early evolutionary history of mankind to
the future global challenges of feeding 9 billion people, the relationship
between water and food production is fundamental.1 The developments of
complex societies and civilizations were to a large extent based on the
wealth generated by surplus agricultural production in natural or artificially
irrigated land, and the revolutionary population growth during the last
century was due to more efficient food production, which again – and
this has been tended to be overlooked in many analyses of the Green
revolution – was premised on radically more and different uses of water.
Future pressure on water resources and water management in order to
increase food production will thus most likely increase. Very few now share
the widespread optimism of the early 1970s, when the world’s population
turned 4 billion and the then US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger,
proclaimed that ‘no child will go to bed hungry within ten years’.2
As development continues and the number of people increases,
meeting the world’s demand for food, and thus for water, will be one
of the most important challenges for the world community in the
twenty-first century.
Research Interests:
Holy water has a central role in shaping the understanding and beliefs of holiness in general, but how does holy water work, and what defines holy water? By analyzing holy water in three different religious traditions—Christianity in... more
Holy water has a central role in shaping the understanding and beliefs of holiness in general, but how does holy water work, and what defines holy water? By analyzing holy water in three different religious traditions—Christianity in Northern Europe, Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and Hinduism—the aim is to discuss the metaphysical essence of water in human understanding and ideas of holiness embodied in water. On the one hand, holy water represents purity and has to be protected from defilement, but on the other hand, many holy rivers are severely polluted. This seeming paradox will be analyzed by focusing on actual beliefs and uses of holy water in ritual and religious practices. Holy water transmits purity and holiness, but it also transfers, transports, and transforms impurities. In the process of obtaining spiritual purity, devotees may pollute the holy because holy water is believed to have a divine agency. By comparing ritual practices and beliefs in three distinct religious traditions in Europe, Africa, and Asia, it is possible to enhance the understanding of the ways holiness and holy water are perceived to work in cultural‐specific religious worldviews based on essential capacities of water cross‐culturally. This directs the attention to the structuring mechanisms at work because water is conceptualized and used as holy in remarkably similar ways in many religions.
Are we now living in a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene? Geo-scientists discuss whether there is a need for a new concept covering the last 250 years' immense human impact on the... more
Are we now living in a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene? Geo-scientists discuss whether there is a need for a new concept covering the last 250 years' immense human impact on the earth. How are we going to understand and define 'heritage'and archaeology in a rapidly changing global environment? The 'linguistic turn'in humanities and social sciences has had a huge impact on both archaeology and heritage studies since c. 1980. A critique is raised against the anti-essentialist view that heritage is constructed, not ...
Research Interests:
Are we now living in a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene? Geo-scientists discuss whether there is a need for a new concept covering the last 250 years' immense human impact on the... more
Are we now living in a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene? Geo-scientists discuss whether there is a need for a new concept covering the last 250 years' immense human impact on the earth. How are we going to understand and define 'heritage'and archaeology in a rapidly changing global environment? The 'linguistic turn'in humanities and social sciences has had a huge impact on both archaeology and heritage studies since c. 1980. A critique is raised against the anti-essentialist view that heritage is constructed, not ...
Research Interests:
Borrehaugene belyser alt det som ligger mellom politikk og vitenskap. Borre har blitt tildelt ulike politiske og vitenskapelige roller og formidlet deretter. I vikingtiden var stedet et senter hvor ritualer manifesterte politisk... more
Borrehaugene belyser alt det som ligger mellom politikk og vitenskap. Borre har blitt tildelt ulike politiske og vitenskapelige roller og formidlet deretter. I vikingtiden var stedet et senter hvor ritualer manifesterte politisk lederskap. I mellomkrigstiden og under 2. verdenskrig ble Borre sett på som selve utgangspunktet for Norges samling. I etterkrigstiden har Borre hatt en mindre politisk betydning på grunn av nazistenes bruk, men er på 2000-tallet i ferd med å få en ny renessanse som regionalt turistmål.
Research Interests:
Is it unethical to excavate recent graves and cremated remains, but ethical to excavate prehistoric funeral remains? Most archaeologists will probably answer yes to these questions, although this is not straightforward and obvious.... more
Is it unethical to excavate recent graves and cremated remains, but ethical to excavate
prehistoric funeral remains? Most archaeologists will probably answer yes to these questions, although
this is not straightforward and obvious. Western archaeologists often have an implicit Christian and
ethnocentric worldview with regards to ethical questions concerning death, which in turn may become a
new form of academic colonialism. We will address these issues with the cremated kings in Nepal after
the palace massacre in Kathmandu in 2001. Less than a year later we excavated the kings’ bones from
these cremations in the riverbed, and asked one of the cremation priests who cremated the royals about
death and ethics.
prehistoric funeral remains? Most archaeologists will probably answer yes to these questions, although
this is not straightforward and obvious. Western archaeologists often have an implicit Christian and
ethnocentric worldview with regards to ethical questions concerning death, which in turn may become a
new form of academic colonialism. We will address these issues with the cremated kings in Nepal after
the palace massacre in Kathmandu in 2001. Less than a year later we excavated the kings’ bones from
these cremations in the riverbed, and asked one of the cremation priests who cremated the royals about
death and ethics.
Research Interests:
""Mircea Eliade discusses different smiths and their «Human sacrifices to the furnace» in his classical work The Forge and the Crucible (1962). Among others, Eliade refers to a group of traditional blacksmiths in central India and the... more
""Mircea Eliade discusses different smiths and their «Human sacrifices to the furnace» in his classical work The Forge and the Crucible (1962). Among others, Eliade refers to a group of traditional blacksmiths in central India and the myth where the god Sing-bonga sacrificed himself in the furnace. In another telling of this myth the divinities sacrificed the smiths since they had been intimidating and annoying the gods (Eliade 1962: 65-66). Eliade emphasises the necessity of performing sacrifice to the furnace, and that the myths relating to human sacrifice may underline the demoniac character of metallurgy. In Africa, for instance, miscarriages and abortions have been offered as a part of initiating the smithy, and this represents an intermediary form between the actual or the symbolic human sacrifice (Eliade 1962: 68). There is currently no evidence in Africa for proper use of human bodies in the smithy, but among the Achewa and Agoni tribes of the Dowa District in today’s Malawi, a miscarriage had to take place before a furnace could be made. A medicine man instructed a small boy to throw a maize cob inserted with medicines at a pregnant woman, which caused her to have a miscarriage. The abortion was buried in a refuse heap, but during the night the medicine man dug it up, mixed it with medicine, and burnt it in the whole in the ground. The furnace was then built above the whole and thus keeping the abortion within it (Hodgson 1933: 163).
We think that Mircea Eliade was right when he emphasised the furnace as a sacrificial place of human beings, but we also think he missed three crucial aspects when he stressed the mythological origins of these sacrifices rather than why dead humans might be necessary in the smelting process. Following Lotte Hedeager’s influential and thought-provoking research on the relation between technology and cosmology, and her interpretations of the meaning of the Scandinavian animal style (e.g. Hedeager 1999, 2003, 2004a, 2004b), we will emphasise the intricate relation between smith and death.""
We think that Mircea Eliade was right when he emphasised the furnace as a sacrificial place of human beings, but we also think he missed three crucial aspects when he stressed the mythological origins of these sacrifices rather than why dead humans might be necessary in the smelting process. Following Lotte Hedeager’s influential and thought-provoking research on the relation between technology and cosmology, and her interpretations of the meaning of the Scandinavian animal style (e.g. Hedeager 1999, 2003, 2004a, 2004b), we will emphasise the intricate relation between smith and death.""
Research Interests: Archaeology, Ritual, Metallurgy, Culture, Funerary Archaeology, and 8 moreBronze Age Europe (Archaeology), Death and Burial (Archaeology), Burial Practices (Archaeology), Iron Age, Ancient Metallurgy, Tradition, Burial Customs, and European Copper and Bronze Age – Archaeometallurgy – Prehistoric Metalworking in Social Context – Settlement Archaeology – Application of Geophysical Methods in Archaeology – Neolithic – Theory / Cultural Anthropology – Material Culture Studies
"‘Change equals death’ (Woody Allen) Apart from eschatological aspects, death is more important for the living than the dead. It is argued that funerals are one of the most important settings for recreating society through the... more
"‘Change equals death’ (Woody Allen)
Apart from eschatological aspects, death is more important for the living than the dead. It is argued that funerals are one of the most important settings for recreating society through the re-establishment of alliances. When an important person dies, his or her former social relations and alliances come to an end and have to be re-established from a societal point of view. At funerals not only are gifts given to the deceased, but it is equally important that the ritual participants make new alliances and re-negotiate old ones by the exchange of gifts. Thus, the distributions of artefacts, or the construction of different funeral monuments, are here seen as the outcome of such transactions. By emphasising transactions and re-negotiations of alliances in different funerals we argue that the distribution of prestige goods in Europe is not only part of trade or warfare. Exchange of gifts and prestige items as part of reciprocal relations was crucial in the structuring of inter-regional areas. Funerals were such occasions where the descendants and the living could legitimate future hierarchies by transferring the deceased’s social status and power to themselves by re-negotiating former alliances and creating new ones."
Apart from eschatological aspects, death is more important for the living than the dead. It is argued that funerals are one of the most important settings for recreating society through the re-establishment of alliances. When an important person dies, his or her former social relations and alliances come to an end and have to be re-established from a societal point of view. At funerals not only are gifts given to the deceased, but it is equally important that the ritual participants make new alliances and re-negotiate old ones by the exchange of gifts. Thus, the distributions of artefacts, or the construction of different funeral monuments, are here seen as the outcome of such transactions. By emphasising transactions and re-negotiations of alliances in different funerals we argue that the distribution of prestige goods in Europe is not only part of trade or warfare. Exchange of gifts and prestige items as part of reciprocal relations was crucial in the structuring of inter-regional areas. Funerals were such occasions where the descendants and the living could legitimate future hierarchies by transferring the deceased’s social status and power to themselves by re-negotiating former alliances and creating new ones."
Research Interests: Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Death Studies, Ritual, Culture, and 10 moreFunerary Archaeology, Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology), Death and Burial (Archaeology), Late Bronze Age archaeology, Anthropology of Death, Burial Practices (Archaeology), Bronze Age (Archaeology), Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Tradition, and Burial Customs
The great Indo-European horse sacrifice is one of the most enduring and widespread traditions in world history. This study presents a historic overview of Indo-European studies and shows the cosmological continuity of the... more
The great Indo-European horse sacrifice is one of the most enduring and widespread traditions in world history. This study presents a historic overview of Indo-European studies and shows the cosmological continuity of the horse-sacrificial tradition based on specific cultural innovations and ecological adaptations over time. It also sheds new light on cultural history through in-depth analysis of horse sacrifice in culture and cosmology. From Sintashta in Russia and the steppes to the legendary ashwamedha ritual in India and horse sacrifices in Roman, Greek and Irish traditions, the analysis finds that horse sacrifice appears to have been most successful in Scandinavia, with classic sites and funerals such as Sagaholm, Kivik and Håga in the Bronze Age and Old Uppsala, Rakne and Oseberg in the Iron Age. The horse-sacrifice tradition shows that these cosmological rituals were closely related to the region’s ecology, the weather and the availability of water that was required for a successful harvest. In the cold north, the sun was important for cultivation, but it was the relation between water and winter that defined the seasons and called for horse rituals, as recent skeid traditions show. Understanding horse sacrifice as an institution therefore provides new insights into prehistoric religion from the Bronze Age to recent folklore in rural Scandinavia.
http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?dswid=1703&pid=diva2%3A1435564&c=1&searchType=SIMPLE&language=en&query=oestigaard&af=%5B%5D&aq=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aq2=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aqe=%5B%5D&noOfRows=50&sortOrder=dateIssued_sort_desc&sortOrder2=title_sort_asc&onlyFullText=false&sf=all
http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?dswid=1703&pid=diva2%3A1435564&c=1&searchType=SIMPLE&language=en&query=oestigaard&af=%5B%5D&aq=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aq2=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aqe=%5B%5D&noOfRows=50&sortOrder=dateIssued_sort_desc&sortOrder2=title_sort_asc&onlyFullText=false&sf=all
Death matters and the matters of death are initially, and to a large extent, the decaying flesh of the corpse. Cremation as a ritual practice is the fastest and most optimal way of dissolving the corpse’s flesh, either by annihilation or... more
Death matters and the matters of death are initially, and to a large extent, the decaying flesh of the corpse. Cremation as a ritual practice is the fastest and most optimal way of dissolving the corpse’s flesh, either by annihilation or purification, or a combination. Still, cremation was not the final rite, and the archaeological record testifies that the dead represented a means to other ends – the flesh, and not the least the bones – have been incorporated in a wide range of other ritual contexts. While human sacrifices and cannibalism as ritual phenomena are much discussed in anthropology, archaeology has an advantage, since the actual bone material leaves traces of ritual practices that are unseen and unheard of in the contemporary world. As such, this book fleshes out a broader and more coherent understanding of prehistoric religions and funeral practices in Scandinavia by focusing on cremation, corpses and cannibalism.
Cultural and natural heritage is a fundamental part of society and crucial in any development process; yet because of the complexity, it has proved difficult to incorporate culture and tradition in actual policy practice. Here the rich... more
Cultural and natural heritage is a fundamental part of society and crucial in any development process; yet because of the complexity, it has proved difficult to incorporate culture and tradition in actual policy practice. Here the rich heritage of the Busoga is explored, using the water cosmology at the Itanda Falls in Uganda, with a specific emphasis on a rainmaking ritual and sacrifice to the rain-god during a drought. While rainmaking rituals cannot mitigate climate change in the modern world, and while fewer and fewer people believe in the traditional religion, the past and its traditions are still sources for the future. As we rethink the role of heritage in the processes of poverty alleviation, it is argued, a strong emphasis on cultural and natural heritage is one of the most efficient and important areas of long-term development in an era of globalization, when traditions are disappearing. Without a past, there is no future.
Dams, irrigation systems and hydropolitics are back on the geopolitical agenda. In recent years, we have seen an accelerating interest in large-scale water infrastructures, such as multipurpose dams and irrigation schemes, in the Nile... more
Dams, irrigation systems and hydropolitics are back on the geopolitical agenda. In recent years, we have seen an accelerating interest in large-scale water infrastructures, such as multipurpose dams and irrigation schemes, in the Nile Region and adjacent catchment areas. Governments in these regions are struggling to increase food security and to provide more energy in the face of industrialisation, climate change and rapid urban growth. The tension between countries over access to water will probably rise, as spells of drought increase in length and intensity.
This small anthology presents seven chapters on dam building processes and projects from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. It aims to deepen the understanding of the role of dams in development strategies in Africa and it problematizes why some dams are implemented while others are not, and the decision-making processes behind building either irrigation, hydropower or multi-purpose dams. Written in a short and consistent genre, it targets academics and policy makers interested in dam discourses and water infrastructure development.
This small anthology presents seven chapters on dam building processes and projects from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. It aims to deepen the understanding of the role of dams in development strategies in Africa and it problematizes why some dams are implemented while others are not, and the decision-making processes behind building either irrigation, hydropower or multi-purpose dams. Written in a short and consistent genre, it targets academics and policy makers interested in dam discourses and water infrastructure development.
The damming of Bujagali Falls, located only 8 kilometers north of the historic source of the White Nile or the outlet of Lake Victoria, has been seen as one of the most controversial dams in modern times. In 2012, the dam was eventually... more
The damming of Bujagali Falls, located only 8 kilometers north of the historic source of the White Nile or the outlet of Lake Victoria, has been seen as one of the most controversial dams in modern times. In 2012, the dam was eventually inaugurated after years of anti-dam opposition and delays. A unique aspect of the controversies was the river spirit Budhagaali living in the falls blocking the dam and opposing the destruction of the waterfalls. This spirits embodies a particular healer – Jaja Bujagali, but he was bypassed by another healer who conducted no less than three grandiose appeasement and relocation ceremonies for the Budhagaali spirit clearing the way for the dam. Why has this particular dam been so controversial? How can a water spirit block a nearly billion dollar dam? What was the ritual drama behind the construction of the dam and is it possible to move a spirit? And what happened to Budhagaali and the indigenous religion after the falls were flooded and can a river spirit be drowned in its own element – water?
‘Even if Caesar was the most powerful man on earth at the time, limits to his knowledge and domination are clear. Even the Roman emperor was inferior to the Nile and its mysteries. The Nile is arguably the most famous river in the world.... more
‘Even if Caesar was the most powerful man on earth at the time, limits to his knowledge and domination are clear. Even the Roman emperor was inferior to the Nile and its mysteries. The Nile is arguably the most famous river in the world. Since antiquity the search for its source defeated emperors and explorers. Yet the search for the source of the Nile was also a religious quest – for the origin of its divine and life-giving waters. The source of the Blue Nile, in Ethiopia, is the very outlet of the river Gihon, connecting Paradise with Christian believers. The source of the White Nile, in Uganda, is central to traditional cosmology – in waterfalls from Lake Victoria to Murchison Falls innumerable and powerful water spirits define culture and religion. From its origins to the sea, the Nile is a powerful source for a greater understanding of human nature, society and religion. In The Religious Nile Terje Oestigaard explores the cultural history of the river to reveal the role played by water in the development and make-up of societies and civilizations. Spanning five thousand years, from antiquity to the present day, the author explores the religions and cultures along the Nile and the meanings attached to water by the civilizations dependent upon its waters. Part religious quest, part exploration narrative of the river from its sources to the sea, the result is a rich and engaging story of the world’s most famous river.’